ments.

Constitution provides that an oath to support it shall power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences be taken by the members of the legislative, executive, against the United States, except in cases of impeachand judicial departments of each of the State government; makes treaties, with the advice and consent of two-thirds of the Senate; and, during a recess of the On the other hand, the controlling and universal Senate, makes temporary appointments to fill vacandesire of the people for the maintenance of State cies, expiring at the end of the next session of the rights, as distinguished from State sovereignty, is Senate. He sends messages to Congress from time to written in almost every section of the Constitution. time, giving information of the state of the Union, Not only are the States a recognized instrumentality and recommending measures for consideration. He in the execution of the provisions of the Constitution, may call together both houses, or either house, in essential to the election of President and Vice-Presi- special session; and, if the two houses cannot decide dent, to the election of the Senate, to the internal ex- on the time of adjournment, he may decide it for them. tradition of criminals, and to the power of amendment He, like the Vice-President, and all other civil officers, itself; the continued existence of the States is secured is removable on impeachment by the House of Repreby the provision that no State shall ever be deprived sentatives, trial by the Senate, and conviction by twoof its equal suffrage in the Senate, without its own con-thirds of the senators. All the officers under the sent. It is difficult to see what stronger guarantees executive are organized into as many departments as for State rights could be asked. Unless the spirit of may be provided by law; and the President has the the system be radically changed, the rights of Dela- constitutional right to call on the head of any departware, for example, become only more secure as the ment for his written opinion on any subject relating to national power grows stronger; they are actually far the duties of his department. Out of this has arisen more secure, under the guarantee of a powerful na- the extra-constitutional term "cabinet," applied to tional protector, than if their only guarantee were these heads of departments collectively. the sovereignty" of Delaware. In fact, the principal enemy of State rights under the Constitution is the advocate of State sovereignty under the Constitution.

The electoral system controls the election of the President and Vice-President. Each State appoints, in such manner as its legislature may direct, a number of electors equal to the whole number of senators Taking the Federal Constitution as the organic law and representatives to which the State is entitled. of the land, the State constitutions are the autonomy Until about 1828 the legislature usually appointed the guaranteed to the States by the national power. But electors itself; since that year they have been chosen there is this fundamental difference in the operations by popular vote, except that South Carolina only of the Federal and State governments, that the former made the change in 1868. The electors meet in their exercises such powers as are granted to it by the Fed- States, and vote by ballot for President and Viceeral Constitution, while the latter exercise such powers President, one at least of the two names to be from as are not denied to them by the Federal or State con- some other State than their own. Their votes are sent stitutions. The former is a government of stipulated, to the President of the Senate. He opens all the certiand the latter of residual, powers. But it must be re-ficates in the presence of the two houses, and the membered, also, that a state of war, particularly if it is dangerous or within the limits of the country, will always result in the assumption of very doubtful powers by the Federal government, and the consequent peril of a radical alteration in the conception of the system, an alteration the more perilous because it must of necessity take place without calm consideration. The general perception of this underlying danger has made the nation one which is already very averse to war, and its tendency for the future seems to be increasingly in the same direction.

Passing from the nature of the Constitution to its practical features, we find the most prominent to be the legislative department; this has been treated in a separate article (see CONGRESS). Notwithstanding its prominence, it has, thus far in its history, encroached less upon the other departments of the government than in any other country in which a parliamentary system of any kind has been attempted. The other departments are the executive and judiciary, each of which has characteristics which are peculiar to the American system.

votes shall then be counted." The persons having a majority of the electoral votes for President and VicePresident are elected. If there is no election for President, the House of Representatives chooses a President, voting by States, each State having one vote. If there is no election for Vice-President, the Senate chooses a Vice-President, voting as usual. At first the electors simply voted for two persons, without distinguishing the votes for President and Vice-President; for it was presumed that the electors were to exercise an intelligent choice among the candidates, and no one saw anything improper in the action of Gerry, a Democratic elector, in voting on personal grounds for Adams, a Federalist, against Jefferson, the head of his own party. Just before the election of 1800 the electors became fixed in that nullity which has since been characteristic of them; it became a point of honor that each elector should vote for the two candidates of his own party. The inevitable result was that, whichever party was successful, its two candidates would have a tie vote, unless some one of its electors should throw away one of his votes on a rank The Executive Department consists of the whole outsider. The result took place in 1800-1, when Jefbody of officers to whom is assigned the duty of enforc-ferson and Burr were a tie in the electoral vote, and ing the laws of the United States. At their head is the Federalist majority in the House of Representathe President, the only one of them who reaches his tives very nearly elected Aaron Burr to the office of position by election; the others are appointed by the President of the United States. To meet the new President, subject to the approval of the Senate, or conditions, the twelfth amendment, which fixed the their appointments are regulated by law. "Congress system as above given, was ratified in 1804. Though may by law vest the appointment of such inferior the Vice-President is chosen at the same time and in officers as they think proper in the President alone, in the same manner as the President, he is no part of the the courts of law, or in the heads of departments executive department. His only function is to pre(Art. II., Sec. 2). The President must be a natural- side over the Senate, where he has no vote except in born citizen, of the age of thirty-five years, and resi- case of a tie. Should the President be impeached, dent in the country for fourteen years. He is chosen the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is called to not by popular vote, but by the electoral system (ex-preside over the Senate during the trial. The Viceplained in the next paragraph). There is nothing in the Constitution to prevent his indefinite re-election; but the popular prejudice against a third term is so strong as to amount to a practical prohibition. He is commander-in-chief of the army and navy; has the

President is purely a stand-by, in readiness to take the Presidency in case of the President's removal, death, resignation, or inability; and in practice is rarely admitted to any great influence on the administration.

questions. The court has always held that it has no jurisdiction of purely political questions, questions whose decision came fairly within the province of Congress or the President, and whose decision seemed likely to bring the court into open conflict with the other branches of the government. Thus, while Congress was enforcing reconstruction of the Southern States in 1867-8, the supreme court refused to allow the constitutionality of the reconstruction laws to be brought up for decision. Theoretically the court is as much at the mercy of the other two branches as the House of Lords is in Great Britain, and could be swamped at any time by the creation of new judges; but no such measure has ever been confessedly employed, though it has been alleged to have been the motive of some changes. As a very general rule the court has been so intrenched in popular regard that no political party would willingly be responsible for an attack on it.

Thus far the Constitution provides the general out- risdiction. Process runs through the United States, lines of the executive department, the election of its but trials for crimes are to take place in the State in head, and the appointment of its subordinates. These which the crimes are committed. For crimes comoutlines were to be filled up by the legislative depart- mitted out of the jurisdiction of any State the place ment. Various acts of Congress have divided the of trial is fixed by statute. executive officers into seven departments, and each "Federal cases," as they are commonly called, are department into bureaux, such as the internal revenue all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Conbureau in the treasury department, and the census and stitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties pension bureaux in the department of the interior. made, or which shall be made, under their authority.' The departments are as follows, with the year of their The grant of such a jurisdiction, under a written conerection into a distinct department: department of stitution, has made the Federal judiciary the arbiter state (1789); of the treasury (1789); of war (1789); of the constitutionality of the laws passed by Conof justice (1789); of the navy (1798); of the post- gress, and even of State constitutions and laws, so far office (1829); of the interior (1849.) The duties of as they are alleged to be in contravention of the Federal the officers of these departments are so clearly defined Constitution. Such a jurisdiction was really unpreceby law that the work of the officials is purely execu- dented when it was framed, but it cannot be said that tive. In like manner the outlines of the electoral sys- it has proved dangerous in practice. When the sutem have been filled up. Acts of Congress have des- preme court has decided that a law is not warranted ignated the day on which the popular vote is to be by the powers granted to Congress by the Constitution, cast for electors, the day on which the electors are to State courts follow the decision, and it is practically meet and vote, the manner in which the votes of the impossible to punish any one for violating the law. electors are to be transmitted to the President of the It is certainly remarkable to see the legislative and execSenate, while copies are to be kept of record. But utive, with the physical force of a nation of 55,000,000 Congress has gone further and asserted a judicial behind them, quietly yielding to the decisions of nine power in the count of the electoral votes which has men assembled in the supreme court chamber at never been successfully defended. This asserted Washington; but it is not quite true, as it is usually power has but two arguments in its favor: the fact that stated abroad, and sometimes at home, that the suno agent is intrusted with the power to count the elec-preme court is the final arbiter of all constitutional toral votes; and the direction that the certificates of the votes are to be opened by the President of the Senate "in the presence" of the two houses of Congress. On this slender foundation, since 1817, congressional authorities have built up an indefinite power over the electoral votes, a power to pass judgment on defects of form or substance, to decide between rival votes from the same State, and even to reject the electoral votes which seemed invalid to the majority of the two houses. Nothing would be easier than to frame and pass general laws defining the forms of certification of the electoral votes from the State authorities, and guiding the President of the Senate in his function of opening the certificates. But to do so would be an abandonment by Congress of a power which might be of controlling force in a presidential lottery, and it has never been done. The special absurdity of the claim lies in the fact that the electoral count is to be made, and disputes are to be decided, by two absolutely independent agents-the two houses-which must be either unanimous under the control of the same party, or hopelessly at odds. In the latter case, where the two houses are controlled by different parties, there is no hope of the two julges coming to an agreement, and recourse must be had to some such extra-constitutional shift as the Electoral Commission of 1877. It would be proper to characterize this last agency as a clumsy device to cloak the inherent absurdity of a canvass by two absolutely independent agents. The Judiciary Department has in the Constitution only a few bold outlines: most of the organization has been left to legislation. The Constitution only provides for one Supreme Court, and for such inferior courts as Congress may from time to time ordain and establish, and directs that the judges shall hold office during good behavior. The inferior courts which have been established are the district courts, whose jurisdiction covers a State or part of a State, with an appeal to circuit courts, whose jurisdiction covers several States each, with an appeal to the supreme court. There are district judges for the 115 districts, circuit judges for each of the nine circuits, and nine supreme court justices, each of whom presides over a circuit. In cases in which ambassadors, other public ministers, or consuls are concerned, or in which a State is plaintiff, the supreme court has original jurisdiction; in cases State Privileges.-The public acts, records, and juof admiralty or maritime jurisdiction, cases to which dicial proceedings of each State are to receive full the United States is a party, cases between citizens of faith and credit in all the other States, and Congress different States, or "Federal cases (explained in the may by general law prescribe the manner of their aunext paragraph), the supreme court has appellate ju-thentication. The citizens of one State are entitled to

Limitations on the United States.-The writ of habeas corpus, according to the supreme court, can never be suspended in the United States by any power. The privilege of the writ is only to be suspended in case of rebellion or invasion, in regard to soldiers, sailors, or prisoners of war; and even in such cases the courts, when open, are still to issue the writ, and decide on the hearing whether the party has lost the privilege of the writ or not. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law can be passed. Direct taxes can only be laid in proportion to the census. No export duty can be laid, nor can any commercial regulation give a preference to the ports of one State over those of another. No money is to be drawn from the treasury except by appropriations. No title of nobility is to be granted. Treason is to consist only in levying war against the United States, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. It is to be proved only by confession in open court, or by two witnesses to the same overt act. Its punishment is to be defined by law, but cannot work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the criminal. No new State can be formed within a State, or by the junction of two or more States or parts of States, without the consent of the legislatures of the States concerned, as well as of Congress.

first ten amendments. They are guarantees of popular rights: (1) to freedom of religion, speech, the press, and petition; (II) to keep and bear arms; (III) to be free from the quartering of soldiers in their houses, except by statute in time of war; (IV) to be secure against unreasonable searches and seizures, and against general warrants; (V) to be held to answer for capital or infamous crimes only by indictment, or presentment by a grand jury, except under martial law; not to be brought twice into jeopardy of life or limb for the same offence; not to be compelled to bear witness against one's self; not to be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law; and not to be deprived of property without just compensation; (VI) in criminal trials, to speedy and public trial by jury, in the district, previously ascertained by law, where the crime was committed, and to have counsel and compulsory process for witnesses; (VII) to trial by jury in suits at common law, where the matter in dispute is valued at more than twenty dollars; (VIII) to be secure from excessive bail and fines, and from cruel and unusual punishments; (IX) to retain their reserved rights without disparagement or question from the rights granted in the Constitution; (X) to have secured to themselves or to the States the rights not granted to the United States or prohibited to the States by the Constitution. These amendments were proposed by Congress Sept. 25, 1789, and declared ratified Dec. 15, 1791.

all the privileges and immunities of citizens in all the by Congress, and ten of these, having been ratified by other States. Persons charged with crime, fleeing three-fourths of the State legislatures, became the from one State to another, are to be delivered up for trial by the governor of the State to which he has fled on requisition from the governor of the State from which he fled. A similar provision with regard to fugitive slaves has become obsolete with the abolition of slavery. To each State a republican form of government is to be guaranteed by the United States, and each is to be protected from invasion by the same power. In case of domestic violence against the established form of the State government, the State legislature, or the governor, if the legislature cannot be convened, can apply for and receive Federal force for its support. Limitations on the States.-The States are absolutely prohibited from entering into any treaty, alliance, or confederation, granting letters of marque and reprisal, coining money, emitting bills of credit, making anything except gold and silver a legal tender, passing any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law which impairs the obligation of contracts, and granting any title of nobility. They are prohibited, unless Congress pass a consenting statute, from laying any duties on exports or imports above what is necessary for executing the inspection laws of the State, from laying duties of tonnage, from keeping troops or ships of war in time of peace, from entering into agreements or compacts with another State or with a foreign power, and from engaging in war, unless actually invaded or in imminent danger. Even if Congress consent to the laying of duties on imports or exports by a State, the net produce is to be for the use of the treas- (XI) The Constitution gives the supreme court ury of the United States, and the laws are to be sub- jurisdiction of cases to which a State shall be a party. ject to the revision and control of Congress. There The supreme court at once construed this to give are also certain concurrent powers of the States which to individuals the right to sue a State. To avoid this may be suspended by the exercise of the correspond-construction, the eleventh amendment was proposed ing powers by Congress: the making or altering by by Congress March 5, 1794, and declared ratified Congress of regulations as to the times, places, and Jan. 8, 1798. It prohibited suit against a State in the manner of holding elections for senators and repre- Federal courts by citizens of another State or of a sentatives supersedes State laws on those subjects, ex- foreign state. cept as to the places of holding elections for senators, and State insolvency laws are superseded by a national bankrupt law.

The Territories are under the control of Congress, and have only such powers of self-government as Congress may see fit to grant them. In practice, however, the whole territorial system of the United States has been controlled by the purpose of developing the Territories into States: their powers of self-government have been increased just as fast as they have grown in population, and they have been treated as inchoate States.

Amendments become valid as parts of the Constitution when proposed by two-thirds of both IIouses of Congress, and ratified by legislatures or conventions (as Congress may decide) in three-fourths of the States. Instead of the original proposition by Congress, Congress is directed to call a new Federal convention for proposing amendments, if it is called for by two-thirds of the State legislatures. The first method of amendment alone has been employed up to this time, and has resulted in the adoption of fifteen amendments which are not incorporated in the Constitution, but are added to it as a supplement. They are as follows:

(I-X.) The first ten amendments were an outcome of the struggle over the adoption of the Constitution. Many of the States which ratified it did so with a strong recommendation of amendments; and one State (New York) desired to make her ratification conditional on the prompt consideration by Congress of the amendments proposed by New York. The supporters of the Constitution would accept nothing but unconditional ratification, and yet there seemed to be a necessity for some amendments as a means of removing the apprehensions of the more moderate of the opposition. When the first Congress met under the Constitution, twelve amendments were proposed

(XII) The twelfth amendment was proposed by Congress Dec. 12, 1803, and declared ratified Sept. 25, 1804. It altered the electoral system into its present form, as previously described.

(XIII) The thirteenth amendment was proposed by Congress Jan. 31, 1865, and declared ratified Dec. 18, 1865. Pres. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation of Jan. 1, 1863, had simply freed the slaves in the States which had not abandoned armed resistance to the laws. It had committed the army and navy to the maintenance of the freedom of such persons; and it necessarily excepted from the operation of the procla mation parts of Louisiana and Virginia, and the States of Kentucky and Delaware. Missouri and Maryland had begun an emancipation of their own; but, as to the other former slave States, there was nothing to prevent the practical or open transfer of legitimate slaves from Kentucky and Delaware, and the reestablishment of slavery. The thirteenth amendment cut the difficulty out by the roots, by forever forbid ding slavery within the limits of the United States. During the summer and autumn which followed Pres. Lincoln's assassination, the conventions of the various Southern States, assembled under the lead of Pres. Johnson, ratified this amendment as their first step to re-entering the Union. The amendment thus obtained a three-fourths ratification with comparatively little difficulty; and, when Congress met in December, Secretary Seward proclaimed the amendment ratified, as if to commit Congress to the Southern conventions which had ratified it. Congress, however, declined to be so committed, or to recognize the applicants for seats from the States reconstructed under "the President's policy.'

(XIV) The fourteenth amendment was proposed by Congress June 16, 1866. It comprised the terms of readmission offered by Congress to the States which had been in insurrection. It was in five sections.

(1) All persons born or naturalized in the United expressly granted, every invention, every development States, not having transferred their allegiance, were of society, would have been only a new danger and declared citizens of the United States and of the difficulty to the unfortunate government of the United State of their residence. This was to avoid the Dred States. It would have been a strain to make the exScott decision of the Supreme Court in 1857 (see that press power to establish post-offices and post-roads title). No State was to make any law to abridge the cover the new case of railways; an impossibility to privileges or immunities of citizens of the United stretch it to cover the later case of telegraphs. But States, or deny to any person the equal protection of the Constitution, after enumerating the powers of the laws. (2) If any State should refuse the ballot to legislation, adds the power to make all laws which any portion of its male citizens over 21, the State's shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execurepresentatives in Congress were to be reduced propor- tion the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested tionally. (3) The higher classes of Confederate office- by this Constitution in the government of the United holders, who had previously taken an oath to support States, or in any department or officer thereof." It the Constitution of the United States, were not to is true that the Supreme Court has decided that the hold any office, civil or military, under the United word "necessary" may mean "absolutely necessary, States or the State until their disabilities should be revery necessary or simply "necessary;" that Conmoved by a vote of two-thirds of both houses of Con- gress is the judge as to whether proposed legislation gress. (4) The public debt of the United States was comes under any of these heads; and that an act of not to be questioned; that incurred in aid of insurrec- Congress is not to be pronounced unconstitutional tion was to be forever void. (5) Enforcing powers were unless the defect of power to pass it is so clear as to given to Congress. admit of no doubt.' These rules might seem to lead The terms offered were rejected; the Southern to absolute government by Congress; but a more abidlegislatures refused to ratify the amendment, and with- ing guarantee is found in the influence of this question out them a three-fourths ratification of the amend- of construction on the votes of constituents and the ment was out of the question. The Congressional action of their representatives. All admit that Conelections of 1866, for members of the Congress of gress has both express and implied powers. Some 1867-9, gave the Republicans a two-thirds majority in admit only such implied powers as can be deduced both houses, sufficient to override Pres. Johnson's directly from the expressed powers; others are willing veto for the remainder of his term of office. During to deduce implied powers from implied powers; while the opening months of 1867, therefore, the majority others, acknowledging the legality of both, have a in Congress framed and passed the Reconstruction strong aversion to any but the more direct powers. Act, to be carried out by the succeeding Congress; and There is thus opportunity for the formation of two the new Congress, which met in March, passed sup- great parties, for an indefinite variety of individual plementary acts to strengthen it. The reconstruction opinions, and for party contest in every form. The acts divided the insurrectionary States into military general line of division has been into strict construcdistricts, each under command of a military officer, tionists and broad constructionists, the latter being who was to repress disorder and execute the act. The usually called loose constructionists by their opponents. commanding officer in each district was to register the The former have been represented by one party in our voters of the State, including freedmen, and excluding history-the Democratic party, usually called Republiall persons who would be unable to hold office under can from 1792 until about 1815. The latter have the (proposed) fourteenth amendment. This was the been represented by three parties-the Federal party essential feature of the Congressional plan of recon- (1789-1817), the Whig party (1832-52), and the Restruction; those who were to be excluded from office publican party since 1854 (see the names of the under the third section of the fourteenth amendment parties). But one result of an accession of the strict were to be excluded from reconstruction, from registra-construction party to power has always been that it tion, from voting, and from membership in the con- has adopted and put in practice on its own account ventions which were to frame the new State constitu- various points of broad construction, which, when retions. When these conventions should frame consti- affirmed by its opponents on returning to power, have tutions which should seem to Congress republican, passed beyond question. The general drift of Ameriand when their legislatures should ratify the fourteenth can constitutional law has thus been toward a broad amendment, Congress promised to admit their Sena-construction, but the drift has not been unhealthily tors and Representatives. This plan of reconstruction was followed out, the fourteenth amendment received a three-fourths vote of the States, and it was declared ratified July 21, 1868.

rapid.

United States; Story's Commentaries on the Constitution;

See Bancroft's, Hildreth's, and Von Holst's Histories of the Kent's Commentaries; The Federalist; Curtis's and Bancroft's Histories of the Constitution: Elliot's Debates; Poore's Federal and State Constitutions; Farrar's Manual of the Constitution; Cooley's Constitutional Limitations; Hurd's Theory of our National Existence; Lalor's Cyclopadia of Political Science. (A. J.)

(XV) The second section of the fourteenth amendment, reducing a State's representation in Congress in proportion to its exclusion of any class of voters from the right of suffrage, was not found satisfactory in practice. It was not easy to secure any initiative in enforcing it, and it has really been a dead letter since II. STATE CONSTITUTIONS.-Under this head is preits passage. To reach its object more directly, the sented a synopsis of the present political organization fifteenth amendment was proposed by Congress Feb. of the several States, together with the dates of their 27, 1869, and was declared ratified March 30, 1870. ratification of the Constitution of the United States, It forbade the United States or any State to deny or abridge the right of citizens to vote, on account of or their admission as States, and of their successive race, color, or previous condition of servitude, and of the original thirteen States the order of their setconstitutions. The numbers prefixed indicate in case gave Congress enforcing power. Educational or property limitations could still be imposed by the States, but they must be imposed on whites and blacks alike. This closes the list of alterations in the Constitution up to the present time.

Party contest in the United States, and to a large extent in the States also, turns on the construction of the Constitution. The instrument, as has been stated, is framed in outline only, and the outlines are necessarily to be filled out with legislation. If legislation had been restricted, as under the Confederation, to powers

tlement; in case of the other States the order of their

admission into the Union:

22. Alabama.-Organized as a Territory March 3, 1817. Admitted as a State Dec. 14, 1819. Its successive constitutions bear date Aug. 2, 1819; Dec. 20, 1865; July 13, 1868; Dec. 6, 1875. Elections are held biennially on the first Monday in August of even years. A voter must be a male citizen of the United States, or one who has declared his intention to become such, 21 years of age, 12 months a resident of the State, and 3 months of the county. The legislature meets biennially on the Tuesday after the second Monday in No

vember in even years. Its session is limited to 50 days. A ued its charter of 1662 in force as the organic law, but a new representative must be a qualified voter in the county. A constitution was adopted Oct. 5, 1818. Elections are held on senator must be 27 years of age and a qualified voter in his the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. A voter district. The term of a representative is 2 years, of a sen- must be a white male citizen of the United States, 21 years of ator 4 years. Judges are elected by the people. Their term age, a resident of the State for 1 year, and of the district 6 is 6 years. They may be removed by impeachment, or by months, sustaining a good moral character, and being able the governor on the address of two-thirds of the general to read any article of the constitution or any section of the assembly. The governor must be 30 years of age, 10 years statutes of the State. The legislature meets annually on the a resident of the United States, and 7 years of the State. His first Wednesday of January. Both senators and representterm is 2 years and his salary $3000. He has the veto power, atives must have the same qualifications as voters, and their but may be overruled by a majority of the whole number of term is 1 year. The judges are elected by the general asmembers of each house. He has also the pardoning power.sembly on nomination by the governor. Their term is 8 25. Arkansas.-Organized as a Territory March 2, 1819. years. They may be removed by the governor, and no Admitted as a State June 15, 1836. Its successive constitu- person may hold a judicial office after reaching the age of tions bear date Jan. 30, 1836; Jan. 19, 1864; Feb. 11, 1868; seventy. The governor and lieutenant-governor must have Oct. 13, 1874. Elections are held biennially on the first the same qualifications as voters. The governor's salary is Monday of September. A voter must be a male citizen of $2000 and his term is 1 year. He has the veto power, but the United States, or one who has declared his intention may be overruled on reconsideration by both houses of the of becoming such, 21 years of age, a resident of the State assembly. He has also the pardoning power. for 12 months, of the county for six months, and of the pre- 6. Delaware.-Ratified the Constitution of the United cinct for 1 month. The legislature meets biennially on the States Dec. 7, 1787. Its successive constitutions bear date first Tuesday after the second Monday in January in odd Aug. 27, 1776; June, 1792; Nov. 8, 1831. Elections are years. The session is limited to sixty days. A representa- held on the Tuesday next after the first Monday in Novemtive must be 21 years of age, a citizen of the United States, ber. A voter must be a free white male citizen of the a resident of the State for 2 years, and of the county or dis- United States, 21 years of age, a resident of the State for 1 trict for 1 year. A senator must be 25 years of age, and year, and of the county for 1 month; he must have paid a must have the other qualifications of a representative. The county tax 6 months before election. The legislature meets term of a representative is 2 years, that of a senator is 4 biennially on the first Tuesday of January in odd years. years. The judges are elected by the people. Their term A representative must be 24 years of age, a citizen of the of office is in the supreme court 8 years; in a circuit court State for 3 years, and an inhabitant of the county or district 4 years; and in a county court 2 years. The judges of the for the last year of that time. A senator must be 27 years supreme and the circuit courts may be removed by the gov- of age, with other qualifications of a representative, and ernor on the joint address of two-thirds of the general as- must have a freehold estate of 200 acres, or an estate of sembly. The governor and lieutenant-governor must each £1000 at least. The term of a representative is 2 years, be a citizen of the United States, 30 years of age, and for 7 and of a senator 4 years. Judges are appointed by the gov years a resident of the State. The governor's term of ernor and hold their offices during good behavior, but may office is 2 years and his salary $5000. He has both veto be removed by impeachment. The chancellor receives a power and pardoning power. salary of $1100, chief-justice of supreme court $1200, and associate-justice $1000. The governor must be 30 years of age, a citizen and inhabitant of the United States for 12 years, and of the State for 6 years. His term of office is 4 years, and his salary is $2000. He has a veto power on acts of the legislature, but may be overruled by a two-thirds vote. He has also the pardoning power.

31. California. Formerly included in Mexico, it was ceded to the United States Feb. 2, 1848, and admitted as a State Sept. 9, 1850. Its successive constitutions bear date Nov. 13, 1849; May 7, 1879. Elections are held annually on the first Tuesday of November. A voter must be a male citizen of the United States, 21 years of age, not a native of China; he must have been a resident of the State 1 year, of the county or district 90 days, and of the precinct 30 days. The legislatu e meets biennially on the first Monday affer the first day of January in the odd years. The session is limited to 60 days. A representative must be 21 years of age, a citizen and inhabitant of the State, and of the county or district 1 year before the election. A senator must be 23 years of age, and must have the other qualifications of a representative. The term of a representative is 2 years, that of a senator is 4 years. The judges are elected by the people. The term of a judge of the supreme court is 12 years, of a superior county court 6 years. A judge may be removed by a concurrent vote of both houses of the legislature, adopted by a two-thirds vote of each. The gov-tricts which they represent. The term of a representative ernor and lieutenant-governor must each be 25 years of age, and for 2 years a citizen of the United States and resident of the State. The governor's term of office is 4 years and his salary is $7000. He has the veto power, but may be overruled by a two-thirds vote. He has also the pardoning power.

38. Colorado.-Organized as a Territory Feb. 28, 1861. Admitted as a State by act March 3, 1875, which took effect Aug. 1, 1876. Its constitution bears date July 1, 1876. Its elections are held on the first Tuesday in November. A voter must be a male citizen of the United States, or a person who has declared his intention to become a citizen 4 months before he offers to vote; he must be 21 years of age and a resident of the State for 6 months. The legislature meets biennially on the first Wednesday of January in odd years. The session is limited to 40 days. A representative must be 25 years of age, a citizen of the United States, and for 1 year a resident of the county or district. A senator must have the same qualifications. The term of a representative is 2 years, that of a senator 4 years. The judges are elected by the people. Their term of office is in the supreme court 9 years; in district courts 6 years; in county courts 3 years. They may be removed by impeachment. The governor and lieutenant-governor must each be a citizen of the United States, 30 years of age, and for 2 years a resident of the State. The governor's term of office is 2 years and his salary $3000. He has the veto power over acts of the legislature, but may be overruled by a two-thirds vote. He has also pardoning power.

8. Connecticut.-Ratified the Constitution of the United States Jan. 9, 1788. On becoming a State in 1776 it contin

27. Florida. Formerly belonging to Spain, it was ceded to the United States in 1819. Organized as a Territory March 30, 1822. Admitted as a State March 3, 1845. Its successive constitutions bear date Dec. 3, 1838; Nov. 7, 1865; May, 1868. Elections are held biennially on the first Tuesday after the first Monday of November in odd years. The session is limited to 60 days. A voter must be a male citizen of the United States, or one having made declaration of his intention to become such; he must be a resident of the State for 1 year, and of the county for 6 months. The legislature meets on the first Tuesday after the first Monday of January biennially. Senators and representatives must be duly qualified electors in the respective counties or disis 2 years, that of a senator 4 years. Judges are appointed by the governor and confirmed by the senate. Judges of the supreme court hold their office for life or during good behavior; judges of the circuit court 8 years, and of the county courts 4 years. Judges of the supreme court receive a salary of $3000, and of the circuit courts $2500. They may be removed by impeachment. The governor and lieutenant-governor must each be a qualified elector, a citizen of the United States for 9 years and of the State for 3 years. The governor's term is 4 years and his salary $5000. He has a veto power on acts of the legislature, but may be overruled by a two-thirds vote. The pardoning power is vested in the governor, justices of the supreme court, and attorney-general, or a major part of them, of whom the governor shall be one.

13. Georgia.-Ratified the Constitution of the United States Jan. 2, 1788. Its successive constitutions bear date Feb. 5, 1777; Jan. 4, 1789; May 30, 1798; Nov. 7, 1865; March 11, 1868; Dec. 5, 1877. Elections are held biennially on the first Wednesday of October in even years. A voter must be a male citizen of the United States, or one having declared his intention to become such; 21 years of age, a resident of the State for 6 months, and of the county or district for 30 days, and must have paid his taxes. The legislature meets on the first Wednesday in November in even years. The session is limited to 40 days. A representative must be 21 years of age, a citizen of the United States, and a citizen of the State for 2 years, and for 1 year a resident of the county for which he is chosen. A senator must be 25 years of age, a citizen of the United States, 4 years citizen of State, and 1 year resident of his district. The term of a