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still more. On that year's estimates £5000 was set apart for national prizes throughout the whole colony, and he believed these prizes would be worth winning.

THE prevalent notion that the mistletoe is injurious to the apple or other tree on which it grows is disputed by Dr. G. Bonnier, the Professor of Botany at the Paris Sorbonne, who maintains, not only that this is not the case, but that it is actually beneficial to its host, the relationship being not one of simple parasitism, but rather one of symbiosis. He determined from a series of observations on the increase in the dry weight of the leaves, that, while in summer the mistletoe derives a large portion of its nutriment from the host, in winter these conditions are reversed, and the increase in weight of the mistletoe is less than the amount of carbon which it has obtained from the atmosphere-in other words, that it gives up to its host a portion of its assimilated substance.

AT a meeting of the Royal Botanic Society on Saturday last, Dr. R. C. A. Prior presented ripe seeds of Araucaria imbricata, the monkey-puzzle tree of Chili, collected from a large tree growing in the open air at Corsham, Wilts. He mentioned that in this country the plant, though common, seldom ripens its seeds. It was first introduced here 100 years ago by Mr. Menzies, a Scotch botanist, who accompanied Vancouver's expedition in search of a passage between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In returning from their attempt they put in at Valparaiso, and were hospitably entertained by the Viceroy of Chili. While dessert was on the table Menzies observed some nuts he had not seen before. Instead of eating his share he saved them, and, taking a box of soil back with him on board ship, succeeded in raising five plants, which he brought to England, and these formed the stock from which most of the large trees now growing in various parts of the country have sprung.

SOME time ago Mr. G. Brown Goode, of the U.S. National Museum, delivered before the Brooklyn Institute a lecture on "The Museums of the Future." This lecture has now been printed, and is well worth reading. Mr. Goode's main idea is, that "the people's Museum should be much more than a house full of specimens in a glass case." "It should," he says, "be a house full of ideas, arranged with the strictest attention to system." This conception he expresses epigrammatically by defining a Museum as "a collection of instructive labels, each illustrated by a well-selected specimen." In the course of the lecture he offers many instructive and interesting remarks on the Museums of the Old World.

THE first number of the new Zeitschrift für Anorganische Chemie, edited by Prof. Krüss, of Munich, was issued on February 27. As its title implies, the new journal is devoted exclusively to the inorganic branch of chemistry, and the names of the distinguished chemists throughout Europe and America whose co-operation the editor has been fortunate in securing would appear to promise well for its value and success. The first number, now before us, contains the following six original memoirs: "Phosphorus Sulphoxide," by T. E. Thorpe and A. E. Tutton; "The Double Acids of Heptatomic Iodine," by C. W. Blomstrand; "The Action of Hydrogen Peroxide upon certain Fluorides," by A. Piccini; "Ammoniacal Platinum Compounds," by O. Carlgren and P. T. Cleve; Preparation of Tungstates free from Molybdenum," by C. Friedheim and R. Meyer; "A Lecture Experiment," by C. Winkler.

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A NEW Physical Review has been started by the publisher J. Engelhorn, of Stuttgart. The editor is L. Graetz. The object of this periodical will be to make German readers acquainted with the work being done by physicists in other countries. It is intended that it shall serve as a sort of supplement to the well-known Annalen der Physik und Chemie.

WE are glad to welcome the first number of Natural Science, a monthly review of natural history progress. The object of the editors will be "to expound and deal in a critical manner with the principal results of current research in geology and biology that appear to be of more than limited application." Articles are contributed to the first number by Mr. F. E. Beddard, Mr. J. J. H. Teall, F. R. S., Mr. A. S. Woodward, Mr. R. Lydekker, Mr. J. W. Davis, Mr. G. A. Boulenger, Mr. J. W. Gregory, Mr. G. H. Carpenter, and Mr. Thomas Hick. The publishers are Messrs. Macmillan and Co.

MESSRS. EASON AND SON, Dublin, will issue in April the first number of the Irish Naturalist, a monthly journal of general Irish natural history, and the official organ of all the natural history Societies in Ireland. The editors will be Mr. George H. Carpenter and Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger.

A NEW instalment (vol. i. No. 10) of the Records of the Australian Museum has been issued. These Records are edited by Dr. E. P. Ramsay, Curator of the Museum, and embody the results of a great deal of serious scientific work. The present number contains the following papers :-"On the Occurrence of the Genus Palæaster in the Upper Silurian Rocks of Victoria," by R. Etheridge, Jun. (plate); "The Operculate Madreporaria Rugosa of New South Wales," by R. Etheridge, Jun.; "Notes on the Structure of Pedionomus torquatus, with regard to its Systematic Position," by Dr. Hans Gadow.

MESSRS. BLACKIE AND SON have issued an enlarged edition of the well-known "Concise Dictionary of the English Language," by Dr. Charles Annandale. The new matter consists partly of a supplement giving definitions of additional words, partly of several new appendices or lists for general reference.

THE General Report of the operations of the Survey of India Department, administered under the Government of India during 1889-90, has been issued. It has been prepared under the direction of Colonel H. R. Thuillier, R. E., Surveyor-General of India. The Report relates to trigonometrical, topographical, forest, cadastral, and traverse surveys. There is also an account of electro-telegraphic longitude operations, tidal operations, and geographical surveys and reconnais

sances.

THE following are the arrangements for science lectures at the Royal Victoria Hall during March :-March 1, Dr. W. D. Halliburton, on "Nerves"; March 8, Prof. Reinold, on "Sound and Music"; March 15, Dr. Tempest Anderson, on "Iceland"; March 22, Prof. Weldon, on "Soles and other Sea-Fishes"; March 29, Mr. A. Smith Woodward, on "Elephants."

A PAPER upon the preparation of amorphous boron is contributed by M. Moissan to the current number of the Comptes rendus. It was shown in a communication to the Académie des Sciences upon February 15 that the substance hitherto regarded as amorphous boron is a mixture of that substance with large quantities of impurities, formed by the combination of the boron at the moment of its liberation with a portion of the metal used to replace it and with the substance of the vessel in which the reaction is performed. M. Moissan now describes a method by which he has succeeded in obtaining boron in a state of almost perfect purity. The reaction which he employs is that of metallic magnesium upon boric anhydride, a reaction previously studied by several observers, and most recently by Prof. Winkler, who employed the magnesium in the quantity calculated to remove all the oxygen from its state of combination with the boron. M. Moissan shows that if only one-third of this quantity of magnesium is employed, the yield of free boron is very much enhanced, and the impurities are only such as can be removed. He confirms Prof. Winkler's statement that two borides of mag

nesium are capable of formation, one of which is unstable, and, as shown by Messrs. Jones and Taylor, is decomposed by water with evolution of a mixture of hydrogen and boron hydride, while the other is permanent both in the presence of water and acids. It is this stable boride, which M. Moissan has obtained in good crystals, which is so difficult to remove from the substance which has hitherto been considered as amorphous boron, and its formation should be avoided as much as possible. When magnesium and boric anhydride in the proportions above indicated-convenient quantities being 70 grams of the former and 210 grams of the latter-are heated to redness in a closed crucible, a somewhat violent reaction occurs, the crucible becoming vividly incandescent. Upon cooling, a reddish-brown mass is found, which is readily detached from the crucible, and is impregnated throughout with crystals of magnesium borate. The interior portion is then powdered, and successively treated with water and hydrochloric acid, alcoholic potash, hydrofluoric acid, and lastly with distilled water. This product, even after such exhaustive treatment, upon drying in vacuo, is found to contain only 95 per cent. of boron. In order to remove the 5 per cent. of the stable boride, the product is again heated to redness in the midst of a large excess of boric anhydride, and the extraction and washing repeated as before. The percentage of boron is by this means raised to 98.3 per cent., the remaining impurity being a mere trace of the boride and 13 per cent. of nitride of boron. These remaining impurities have finally been eliminated by employing a crucible rendered impenetrable to the furnace gases, the nitrogen of which rapidly causes the formation of nitride, by means of a mixture of titanic acid and charcoal. In addition to the laborious method above indicated, by which tolerably large quantities of pure boron may be obtained, M. Moissan further shows that it may be prepared in smaller quantities by the reduction of boric anhydride by magnesium in a stream of hydrogen, when, after extraction, a pure product necessarily free from nitride is obtained. And lastly, M. Moissan describes an electrolytical method of preparing it. Fused boric acid is rendered a good conductor of electricity by the addition of 20 per cent. of its weight of borax. Upon passing through the fused mixture a current of 35 amperes, a little sodium is liberated at the negative pole, and combines with the platinum electrode to form an alloy, while amorphous boron and oxygen are liberated at the positive pole. The greater portion of the boron, owing to the high temperature of the reaction, recombines with the oxygen with most brilliant incandescence, but a portion escapes combination, and may be isolated in the pure state as a chestnut-coloured powder.

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THE additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the past week include a Green Monkey (Cercopithecus callitrichus 8 ) from West Africa, presented by Mr. George W. Bowles; a Toque Monkey (Macacus pileatus) from Ceylon, presented by Mr. Arthur Wallis; a Bauer's Parrakeet (Platycercus zonarius) from South Australia, presented by Mr. Edward F. Baillou two Alpine Accentors (Accentor collaris), European, presented by Lord Lilford, F.Z.S.; four Coqui Francolins (Francolinus coqui 2 8 2 ) from South Africa, presented by the Hon. F. Erskine; a Green Toad (Bufo viridis), six Painted Frogs (Discoglossus pictus), European, three Moorish Toads (Bufo mauritanica) from Tunis, purchased.

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.

THE WARNER OBSERVATORY.-"The Warner Observatory is distinctively a private institution built for the purposes of original discovery rather than the ordinary routine work of most other Observatories." This sentence begins a recently-published history and work of the Warner Observatory, Rochester, N. Y., from 1883 to 1886. Under such favourable conditions as these,

it is not wonderful that a considerable amount of work should be done. Mr. Lewis Swift is the Director of the Observatory, and, upon assuming command, he selected the discovery of new nebula as his principal field of labour. The first unrecorded nebula was found on July 9, 1883. Since then more than 400 others have been detected; and their positions and descriptions have been published from time to time in four catalogues. The observations are now brought together, and will therefore be more useful than heretofore. In the volume containing them are printed the Warner prize essays. One of these, by Prof. Lewis Boss, treats of "Comets: their Composition, Purpose, and Effect upon the Earth"; and there are several others on the coloured skies seen about the time of the Krakatão eruption. Mr. Henry Maine endeavours to show that a physical connection existed between these red sunsets and solar activity. The Rev. S. E. Bishop, of Honolulu, also describes the brilliant glows in question; ascribing them to the introduction of finely divided matter into the higher regions of the atmosphere.

MEASUREMENT OF SOLAR PROMINENCES.-In Comptes rendus, tome cxiii. p. 353 (1891), M. Fizeau pointed out that the velocities attained by solar prominences were comparable with the earth's orbital velocity, and remarked that, on account of this circumstance, prominences must suffer a displacement from their true position. If this were so, and the argument appeared to be sound, then the apparent heights reached would have to be increased or diminished according to the velocity with which the prominences were projected. Mr. Henry Crow has pointed out an apparent error in this reasoning (Astronomy and AstroPhysics, January, p. 90). He says:-"The author here neglects the fact that, at any given instant, each point of the solar disk and of the prominence, whether in motion or at rest, is sending to the observer rays, all of which are affected by the same correction for aberration. I say the same' correction, since the change in celestial longitude or latitude from one part of the sun's surface to another would affect the aberration quite inappreciably. If there be relative motion among the parts of the prominence, then, since at any instant aberration affects all these parts to the same extent, the prominence will be projected upon the slit of the spectroscope in its true proportions." So the study of the solar surface is apparently not to be complicated by the introduction of a new correction. In this connection it may be remarked that, in a letter dated February 12, Prof. Hale writes: "You may be interested to know that I have just succeeded in photographing all the prominences around the sun with a single exposure.'

THE AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

THE Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science held its fourth annual meeting at Hobart, Tasmania, from January 7 to 14 inclusive. The meeting was in every way successful, and the proceedings afford ample and most satisfactory evidence that much excellent work is being done among our Australasian kinsfolk in every branch of science. The President was His Excellency Sir Robert Hamilton, Governor of Tasmania. The people of Hobart accorded to the members of the Association a inost hearty welcome, and did everything in their power to make the occasion a pleasant and memorable one. Visitors from a distance had the advantage of being able to travel both by sea and land at greatly reduced fares, and everything of scientific interest in Tasmania was clearly explained for them in a capital hand-book issued from the Government Printing Office. Mr. Robert Giffen attended the meeting, and was cordially received. He delivered a lecture to the members of the Association on "The Rise and Growth of the British Empire.'

Great credit is due to the Hobart Mercury and other local papers for the enterprise they displayed in reporting the proceedings.

At the meeting of the general Council on January 7, the chair was taken by Baron von Mueller, past President, as Sir James Hector, the retiring President, was prevented by ill health from being present. It was formally decided that the fifth annual meeting of the Association should be held at Adelaide, and practically decided that the sixth should be held at Brisbane. Prof. Tate will be President of the Adelaide meeting.

On the evening of the 7th Sir Robert Hamilton delivered his presidential address before a large audience in the Town Hall. He presented an interesting sketch of the history of the Royal Society of Tasmania, and suggested many sound reasons why all intelligent persons in Australasia should do their utmost "to hasten the advent of the time, which is undoubtedly approaching, when science will form a much more integral part of the life of the people than it does at present."

It is impossible for us to give a full account of the proceedings of the meeting; but the following notes may suffice to indicate the wide range of the work done in the various Sections.

SECTION A.

MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND MECHANICS.

Prof. Bragg, Adelaide, was President of this Section. He chose as the subject of his presidential address, "Mathematical Analogies between various branches of Physics." About fifty years ago, he said, Sir William Thomson showed that there existed between several branches of physics a very close analogythe analogy was so exact that the solution of any problem of any one theory was at the same time the solution of the problem in any other. The list of analogies might be still further increased by the addition of certain other theories, which were to some extent imaginary, yet important in that they were simple to realize, and therefore of great use in presenting to the mind the usual means of grasping the other problems. It was a matter of the greatest interest that so wide and so perfect an analogy should exist, and for that reason the analogy would be a fit subject for an address. There were other grounds for its fitness. It was of the greatest assistance in physics to follow up this analogy, and examine carefully its nature. It was a common remark that analogies were dangerous things, and the remark was often true enough. But the danger lay only in an imperfect knowledge of the extent to which calculations might be made upon the analogy, and could be avoided once and for all by amending the imperfection. Moreover, the student of electricity and magnetism could hardly avoid the use of some sort of analogy, for these theories deal with quantitative relations between things of the real nature of which we are completely ignorant, and most minds could not for long consider these relations in mere symbols, but must finally give them some sort of form. He then explained the nature of the problem, and proceeded to show the measure of analogy that exists between various theories of physical science.

A paper by Sir Robert Ball, on "The Astronomical Explanation of a Glacial Period," was read by Sir R. Hamilton, and a hearty vote of thanks was accorded to His Excellency and to the author. Mr. A. B. Biggs, Launceston, read a paper on "Tasmanian Earth Tremors." Mr. C. W. Adams, Dunedin, dealt with a graphic method of showing the relation between the temperature of the dew-point and the temperature of the air for any given climate. Mr. George Hogben, Timaru, N.Z., read the report of the Committee on "Seismological Phenomena in Australasia." This Committee had begun its work by making a compilation of the records of all previous earthquake shocks throughout Australasia, and these records were now nearly complete, except for Queensland and Western Australia. It had also provided for as accurate a system of observations in the future as was possible under the circumstances, by means of memoranda to be forwarded from various telegraph offices. The system adopted was, with the necessary modifications, that which had been in use with success in New Zealand for some time past. The Secretary explained what had been done in New Zealand by this means in the determination of earthquake origins, and of other facts about earthquakes, and pointed out that it was as part of a world system of observations that the observations in Australasia are likely to be most useful. With that aim in view the Committee proposed to extend their observations to the islands of the Pacific, and so to establish a connection, if possible, with what was being done in South America and in Japan. An important step was also taken in the adoption of a common standard of intensity-the Rossi-Forel scale, as used by Swiss and Italian seismologists, being that agreed upon. It was pointed out that the system now adopted throughout Australasia had led to the fixing of five of the chief origins of disturbance in or near New Zealand, among them (during the past year) of the origin of most of the Cook's Straits shocks.

Mr. A. McAuley, Ormond College, Melbourne, contributed a paper on "Quaternions as a Practical Instrument of Physical

Research." He indicated the power of the method by six examples :-(1) A theorem in potentials illustrated by applying it to a general electrical problem. (2) Two examples in curvilinear co-ordinates. (3) A quaternion proof of a well-known theorem of Jacobi's of great utility in physics. (4) A generalization of one of the well-known equations of fluid solution. (5) The well-known particular system of the differential equation expressing the conditions of equilibrium of an isotropic elastic solid subject to arbitrary bodily forces. (6) A short criticism of Prof. Poynting's theory of the transference of energy through an electric field.

Papers were read by Mr. W. H. Steele on "The Conductivity of Solutions of Copper Sulphate"; by Mr. R. W. Chapman on "The Dodging Tide of South Australia," containing a summary of the work done by the Committee on Tidal Observations; and by Archbishop Murphy, Hobart, on "Solar Phenomena and their Effects."

Mr. H. C. Russell, F.R.S. (Government Astronomer, N.S. W.), read a paper on "The Grouping of Stars in the Southern Part of the Milky Way." He pointed out the advantages of the photographic method of studying star distribution, and discussed the evidence offered by a large number of photographs taken by himself. The results he had obtained tended to diminish the value of the rifts in the discussion of stellar distribution. The interest of this paper was much enhanced by the exhibition of a large collection of photographs.

Mr. R. L. J. Ellery, F. R.S. (Government Astronomer, V.), read a paper describing some of the difficulties occurring in the photographic charting of the heavens, more especially regarding the determination of stellar magnitude. He also spoke of the desirableness of establishing tidal observations in Tasmania. He drew attention to the incompleteness of the tidal records for Tasmania, and moved a resolution urging the Government to establish several more tide gauges, especially on the north coast. This resolution was seconded by Mr. H. C. Russell, and carried unanimously.

Mr. R. B. Lucas read a paper on the unification of standards of weights and measures, in which the condition of legislation in regard to this important matter, with suggestions for the unification of standards throughout the colonies, and recommendations for a central depot with central administration, was specially considered.

Captain Shortt (Meteorological Observer, Hobart) read a short paper advocating a particular method of determining longitude at sea from observations of the maximum altitude. The paper gave rise to a very interesting discussion.

The President of the Section moved "That the Section telegraph its congratulations to Sir W. Thomson on his elevation to the peerage. This was seconded by Mr. Ellery, supported by Mr. Russell, and carried unanimously.

SECTION B.

CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.

Mr. W. M. Hamlet, Government Analyst, of New South Wales, presided over this Section. In his opening address he dealt with the progress of chemistry in Australasia. Having described the difficulties with which chemists in Australasia have to contend, he said that in spite of them work had been done. He mentioned the discovery of the alkaloids brucine and strychnine in the fruits of Strychnos psilosperma, by Prof. Rennie and Mr. Goyder, of Adelaide; also the work done by Mr. J. H. Maiden, of Sydney, in the examination of Australian kinos, gums, and barks. Chief amongst Mr. Maiden's researches was his work on wattle bark, which he found contained from 15 up to 46 per cent. of tannic acid. These barks were proved to be invaluable for tanning purposes, and their cultivation proved easily remunerative to the agriculturist. Mr. Kirkland's discovery of gallium and indium in some specimens of blende were referred to, as were the highlyinteresting investigations of different minerals by the Rev. J. Milne Curran, of New South Wales. Reference was also made to researches being made by observers who were seeking to find out the actual state of combination in which elements occur in different ores. Much of this kind of work needed to be done, and if such questions were investigated by men who knew what they were doing, it would go a long way towards facilitating the operations attempted in the smelting works, where it is often expected that carbonates, sulphides, chlorides, and oxides should each and all yield to the same treatment.

The following papers were contributed by Mr. J. B. Kirkland, Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator of Chemistry, University of Melbourne :-(1) "Notes on the Electrolysis of Fused Salts of Organic Basis"; (2) "Occurrence of the New Elements Gallium and Indium in a Blende from Peelwood, New South Wales"; (3) "Notes on the Volatility of Magnesium"; (4) "Lecture Experiment on Gaseous Diffusion.” A paper on "The Analysis of the Cavendish banana (Musa Cavendishii) in Relation to its Value as a Food," by W. M. Doherty, was also read. Profs. Liversidge, Jackson, the President, Messrs. Clemes, Wilsmore, and Taylor took part in an interesting discussion that followed the reading of these papers.

Papers were contributed by Mr. W. M. Hamlet on "The Oleo-refractometer in Organic Analysis "; by Mr. A. H. Jackson on "The Analysis of Storage Battery Plates "; by Mr. A. J. Sachs on The Jarvis Field Mineral Waters of Picton, New South Wales"; and by Mr. Mingaye on "Some Mineral Waters of New South Wales."

Mr. A. Liversidge, F. R. S., Professor of Chemistry, University of Sydney, read a paper on "The Rusting of Iron." It was usually stated in books upon chemistry, he said, that iron rust consisted of the hydrated sesquioxide of iron; but on examining a very large number of specimens of rust from very many different places, and from iron articles of various kinds, and formed under very varied conditions, he found that in almost every instance the rust contained more or less magnetic oxide; in fact, in some cases the rust, although presenting the usual "rust brown colour and appearance, was, when powdered, practically wholly attracted by the magnet. The specimens which first drew his attention to the subject were some large scales of rust obtained from the rails of an old tramway at Clifden Springs, in Victoria, and he was led to collect and examine these on account of their resemblance to the crust so often present on metallic meteorites. On crushing this rust in a porcelain mortar and testing it with a magnet, it was found to be practically wholly attracted, the small quantity of iron magnetic oxide present being mechanically inclosed, lifted and removed by the magnetic particles (in consequence of the magnetic particles being joined end to end, parallel to the lines of magnetic force and forming a mesh-work inclosing the nonmagnetic matter); but by repeatedly applying the magnet, and especially under water, the magnetic powder was fairly-well separated from the non-magnetic powder. Bright iron wire, plates, rods, nails, &c., were artificially rusted in many ways with free access of oxygen, and in almost every instance a large amount of magnetic oxide was formed.

Prof. Liversidge also read a paper on "The Presence of Magnetite in Certain Minerals."

Some notes on the analysis of water from Lake Corangamite were given by Mr. A. W. Craig and Mr. N. T. M. Wilsmore. Notes on a "Natural Bone Ash," from Narracoorte, South Australia, were given by Mr. N. T. M. Wilsmore (Melbourne University). This was an account of a fossil guano which might be successfully used for making cupels for silver assays, &c. Other papers read were "Minerals of East Gipps land," by Mr. Donald Clark; and "Notes on the Exudations yielded by some Australian species of Pittosporum," by Mr. J. Marden. A Committee was appointed to make a complete census of the minerals of Tasmania for the next meeting of the Association.

SECTION C.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Prof. T. W. E. David, of Sydney University, President of this Section, delivered an address on volcanic action in Eastern Australia and Tasmania, with special reference to the relation of volcanic activity to oscillations of the earth's crust, and to heavy sedimentation. The evidences of volcanic action in past geological time in East Australia and in Tasmania were reviewed historically, commencing with the oldest known lavas -the Snowy River porphyries-and concluding with the most recent-those of Tower Hill, near Warrnambool, in Victoria. The geological age of the former has been established as being lower Devonian, whereas the occurrence of the skeleton of a dingo under beds of volcanic tuff at the latter locality shows that those volcanic rocks are of recent geological age. Special reference was made to the vast development of contemporaneous lavas and tuffs in the Upper Paleozoic coal-fields of New South Wales, at Raymond Terrace, near Maitland, and at Kiama, in the Illawarra coal-field. Proofs were adduced to show that the

lavas and tuffs at the latter locality were erupted prior to the deposition of the Bulli coal-measures, as marine fossil shells of Permo-Carboniferous age have been found in the volcanic tuffs of that series. The great plateau of diabasic greenstone, which occupies so large an area in the south-eastern portion of Tasmania, was considered by the author to be probably of later origin than the Mesozoic coal-measures of Fingal, Jerusalem, &c., and then the Paleozoic coal-measures of the Mersey coalfield. The greenstone forming the upper portion of Mount Wellington was, in the author's opinion, of later origin than the New Town coal-measures near Hobart. He considered the greenstone to be a variety probably of gabbro, which bad burst through the marine mudstones and overlying coal-measures in the neighbourhood of Hobart in the shape of broad dykes and vosses, and which had spread over the top of the measures in the form of a thick broad capping. If this view were correct, there would be underneath the tiers of greenstone large areas of coal-measures which might contain workable seams of coal, undamaged by the overlying greenstone. A brief description having been given of the basaltic lavas of Tertiary age in Australia and Tasmania, the relation of the various manifestations of volcanic activity to oscillations of the earth's crust and to heavy sedimentation was next examined. The evidence collected by Australian and Tasmanian geologists showed that volcanic action had taken place most frequently after periods of prolonged subsidence had culminated in a compensating reelevation of the land. Instances were cited to prove that in many cases the subsidence which preceded volcanic outbursts was directly due to the local loading of the earth's crust with thick masses of sediment, the weight of which bulged the earth's crust downwards, displacing in the process the lighter granitic magma which is considered to immediately underlie the earth's crust, and bringing the under surface of the crust in proximity to the heavier basic magma. This was suggested as an explanation of the fact that the products of volcanic action from such areas of subsidence were usually basalts rather than rhyolites or obsidians, both of which last are derived from the granitic magma.

Mr. W. J. Clunies Ross read a paper entitled "Remarks on Coral Reefs." Mr. W. J. C. Ross read a paper "On the Discovery of two Specimens of Fossil Lepidodendrons in the Neighbourhood of Bathurst, New South Wales, and the Inferences to be drawn from their Occurrence.' One specimen was from the gravel of the Macquarie River, but its source was to uncertain to be of much value. The other specimen, although not actually found by the writer in situ, was received by him from the finder, who was able to point out the exact place from which it was obtained. This was about ten miles to the east of Bathurst, in some one of a series of beds of grit and quartzite forming the sides of a short valley, at the head of which there was a succession of three waterfalls over hard bands of quartzite, the uppermost fall being over a massive conglomerate. The grit bands contained abundant casts of Brachiopods, Spirifer, and Rhynconella, and the whole series of beds was coloured on the geological sketch map of the colony as Silurian. The late Mr. Wilkinson, however, classed the beds as SiluroDevonian; and a very similar series at Rydal on the Western Railway Line was mapped by him as Devonian. Rydal was at least sixteen miles in a straight line from the locality at which the fossil was found. Near Rydal there were beds containing a Lepidodendron considered by Dr. Feistmantel and Mr. Carruthers as Lepidodendron nothum, and to be of Devonian age. Mr. R. Etheridge, Jun., however, questioned the identification of the species, and seemed to think it was Lepidodendron australe, McCoy, which was generally considered to be Lower Carboniferous. It was pointed out that the fossil now found was almost certainly derived from the grit beds containing Devonian Brachiopods, and was probably of that age. If it were taken as Carboniferous, then a rearrangement of the generally received geology of a large part of New South Wales would be necessary. As bearing on the probable Devonian age of the fossil, attention was called to the fact that in the Lower Carboniferous beds of Strand, N.S. W., there were two species of Lep idodendron, viz. L. Veltheimianum and 1. Volkmannianum. The fossil in question did not resemble either of these forms, but appeared to be either L. nethum or L. australe, and, whichever it was, it was likely to be older than the Strand beds, and therefore can hardly be younger than Devonian. The specimens in question were exhibited, and the opinion of geologists desired on the questions raised.

Mr. J. H. Harvey discussed "The Application of Photography to Geological Work." He urged the desirability of having a photographer attached to every Geological Survey, and the importance of conducting the photography of the various surveys in a systematic and uniform manner. He submitted a scheme in connection with the same, which, without a great increase in the present expense, would, he considered, vastly increase the value of the survey.

Among the remaining papers were the following: "Sample of Cone-in-cone Structure found at Picton, New South Wales,' by Mr. A. J. Sachs; "Notes on the Permo Carboniferous Volcanic Rocks of New South Wales," by Prof. T. W. E. David; "Notes on the Advantages of a Federal School of Mines for Australasia," by Mr. J. Provis.

SECTION D.

BIOLOGY.

Prof. W. Baldwin Spencer, of the Melbourne University dealt in his presidential address with the fresh-water and terrestrial fauna of Tasmania. He described the various species found in Tasmania, and the distribution of these in other parts of Australia, showing that, in such forms as the fresh-water fish, reptiles, and amphibia, those found in Tasmania and some in Victoria were very closely allied. He dealt with the original introduction of the ancestors of the present animals of Australia, and the way in which the descendants of these had become distributed over the various parts, including Tasmania. Prof. Hutton, of Christchurch, New Zealand, read a paper on "The Origin of the Struthious Birds of Australasia." The struthious birds-that was, the ostriches, emus, cassowaries, and kiwis-were confined to the southern hemisphere, except the African ostrich, which ranged into Arabia, and they were supposed to have originated in the northern hemisphere and migrated southwards. But by this hypothesis there were great difficulties in explaining how the struthious birds reached Australia and New Zealand without being accompanied by placental mammals. Also the struthious birds of New Zealand, including the lately extinct moas, were smaller, and make a nearer approach to the flying birds, from which the struthious birds were descended, than did any of the others, and they should expect to find the least altered forms near the place of origin. The tinamus of Central and South America, although flying birds, resembled the New Zealand struthious birds in several particulars; and as a former connection between New Zealand aud South America was shown by the plants, the frogs, and the land shells, it seemed more probable that the struthious birds of Australasia originated in the neighbourhood of New Zealand from flying birds related to the tinamus, and that they spread from thence into Australia and New Guinea, rather than that they should have migrated southwards from Asia. Probably the ostriches of Africa and South America have a different line of descent from the struthious birds of Australasia, and might have originated from swimming birds in the northern hemisphere.

Prof. Spencer read a paper "On the Habits of Ceratodus, the Lung Fish of Queensland." This fish, he stated, lives only in the Burnett and Mary Rivers in Queensland, and belongs to a small group which may be regarded as intermediate between fishes on the one hand and amphibia on the other. The swimming bladder present in ordinary fishes has become modified so that it functions as a lung. In Africa, Protopterus, a form closely allied to Ceratodus, makes for itself a cocoon of mud, in which during the hot, dry season it lives and can breathe by means of its lung. The Ceratodus, however, does not appear to do this, and probably never leaves the water. It comes continually to the surface, and passes out and takes in air, making a faint spouting noise. The author suggested that the lung was of the greatest service to the animal, not during the hot, but during the wet season, when the rivers were flooded, and the water thick with the sand brought down from the surrounding country. With regard to its food, Ceratodus appeared to be herbivorous, feeding, at all events largely, on vegetable matter, such as the seeds of gum-trees which tumble into the water.

Papers were contributed by Mr. F. M. Bailey, Government Botanist of Queensland, on "Queensland Fungus Blights"; by Colonel W. V. Legge on "The Geographical Distribution of Australian Limicole"; by Mr. John Shirley on "A Rearrangement of the Queensland Lichens"; and by Mr. A. F. Robin on "The Preservation of Native Plants and Animals."

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Captain Pasco, R. N., President of the Section, referred in his opening address to early discoveries in Australia. The exploration of the island of Tasmania, and the opening up of its varied resources, were begun by Sir John Franklin. He might be recognized as the founder of the Royal Society of Tasmania, and distinguished himself in 1842 by crossing the island from New Norfolk to Macquarie Harbour. Half a century ago Australia was considered to be a vast desert, containing possibly an inland sea, but Stuart, McDowall, Gregory, Forest, Giles, and others had dissipated that idea by exploring the continent from one side to the other. He further dealt with the tides and currents of the ocean, and their effects generally upon the earth, the temperature and saltness of sea-water, and the direction and force of the currents and times of high and low water. He concluded by saying there was still a considerable area of this globe to be subdued and peaceable dominion obtained within the Antarctic Circle. Though Sir James Ross unfurled the British banner on an island contiguous to the continent or extensive archipelago (as the case might be), yet almost a blank upon the map awaited the enterprise of the Anglo-Saxons located in the southern hemisphere to emulate their forefathers in the north by opening up the frozen zone.

Mr. James M. Clymont, Koonya, Tasmania, read a paper on "The Influence of Spanish and Portuguese Discoveries during the First Twenty Years of the Sixteenth Century on the Theory of an Antipodal Southern Continent." Mr. D. Murray gave an account of Mr. Lindsay's expedition in Western Australia under the auspices of Sir Thos. Elder, giving extracts from his despatches, narrating the journey from Fort Mueller to Queen Victoria Springs, and thence to the Frazer Ranges. Want of water had been a great and unexpected difficulty. There seemed to have been a complete drought for at least a year over this part of the continent. In the discussion ensuing, the question of artesian wells was raised, and Mr. Murray explained that while some of these wells in South Australia were unfit for irrigation purposes, owing to the superabundance of salts of soda, yet they were good enough for stock, &c., and that both further north and further east over large areas the wells gave water suitable for all purposes.

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Papers were contributed by Dr. Frazer, on "Volcanic Phenomena in Samoa in 1886"; by the Rev. J. B. W. Woollnough, Iceland and the Icelander"; by Captain Moore, R. N., on "A Magnetic Shoal near Cossack, W.A." ; and by Mr. A. C. Macdonald, on "The Life and Works of Sir John Franklin." An elaborate and valuable paper on "Recent Explorations and Discoveries in British New Guinea,' was read by Mr. J. P. Thomson. Referring to the natives, Mr. Thomson spoke of their numerous tribal divisions, and of the almost correspondingly different languages or dialects spoken by them. Even in localities separated by only a few miles, the dialects spoken differ the one from the other in some cases considerably. The Motu, which is the language spoken and taught by the missionaries at Port Moresby, is understood over a considerable area, both east and west of that place, but outside that neighbourhood changes and variations occur, so that at the head of the Great Papuan Gulf, and in the Fly Basin, the Motu language is a foreign tongue. The same applies to the eastern end, and to the islands adjacent thereto, where the philological variations are numerous and conflicting. While in the one case the people met with in the highland zones of the Owen Stanley Range spoke a dialect akin to that of the Papuan, those encountered on the Upper Fly River expressed themselves in a tongue, every word of which apparently differed from that spoken by the tribes of the lower regions, and from that spoken by any known coastal community, notwithstanding that the people themselves exhibited no evidence of possessing distinctive characteristics of race, the only marked contrast being in lightness of colour. In the western division the same diversity of speech is met with, where neighbouring tribes are unable to hold intercourse one with the other, even if friendly, by reason of incompatibility of language. No doubt this may in some measure be accounted

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