Water-Supply-The water-works of Chicago form one of the largest and best systems in the world. The water is taken from the lake two miles from the shore, received at two points, and thence distributed over the city. The North-Side works are located near the lake, on Chicago avenue; these consist of pumping-engines and a stand-pipe, or tower, 175 feet high. On March 17, 1864, the work of building a tunnel under the lake was begun, and finished Dec. 6, 1866. A shaft which consists of an iron cylinder 9 feet in diameter was sunk; from this a tunnel extends two miles in a straight line and at right angles with the shore; the diameter of the tunnel is 5 feet, At the east, or crib, end it is 66 feet below the water level of the lake, under a head of 18 feet, with a velocity of 4 miles per hour, and will deliver 57,000,000 gallons of water daily. At the water end of the tunnel stands the "crib."' It was built on the shore, and towed out July 25, 1865. It is built of logs a foot square bolted together. Its dimensions are 98 feet in diameter, 40 feet high. The form is pentagonal, with three walls 11 feet apart; the diameter of the central space is 25 feet, within which an iron cylinder 9 feet in diameter reaches to the tunnel below. The water is forced by the engines into the tower, from which it is distributed by its own weight through pipes to all parts of the city. (See, also, AQUEDUCTS, Vol. I. p. 272.) A similar tunnel was constructed a few years after, 7 feet in diameter and 6 miles long, running south-west under the city to the corner of Ashland and Blue Island avenues and Twenty-second street. In these works is the largest engine in the world, being 1200 horse-power, with a fly-wheel 26 feet in diameter, pumping 2750 gallons at each stroke, and costing $200,000. The four engines here are equal to 3000 horse-power. The supply of water is pure, cool, and inexhaustible, and the pumping capacity of the entire system is 150,000,000 gallons daily. The highest actual supply has been 78,000,000 gallons, and the daily average about 65,000,000 gallons. In 1882 the city had 472.3 miles of water-pipe and 3825 fire-hydrants. The cost has been over $8,000,000, and the works are now the property of the city. The total expense for the year 1882 was $1,307,590.55. The income for the same time was $1,473,386.17, leaving a balance to the credit of the city of $102,795.62.

Streets, Parks, etc.-With the exception of a few streets which abut on the lake and are interfered with by the river and its branches, the streets of Chicago are regularly laid out, with an average of 80 feet in width, and cross each other at right angles. The numbering is from the river east and west, and from Lake street north and south. In 1872 there were 534 miles of streets, of which 94 miles were improved; in 1878 there were 8 miles of sidewalk built; in 1881, 137 miles; and in 1882, 75. There are now nearly 1000 miles of streets, some from 5 to 9 miles in length. Many of the pavements are in an unsatisfactory condition, owing to the nature of the soil and the character and quality of the materials used, for the most part wooden blocks, which speedily decay. Asphalt, granite, and durable materials are coming into use. The streets are well lighted with gas and oil-lamps, of which there were in use, at the close of the year 1882, 11,784 for gas and 2049 for oil. The electric light is in use in many public buildings, but has not yet been employed by the city for the streets. The sewerage of the city has been greatly extended in recent years, and over 380 miles of pipe are in use. The North, West, and South Sides are connected with 33 bridges, which are placed at the distance of two squares apart, and swing on central pivots when boats are passing. In 1868 a tunnel

arate passage for pedestrians, and cost $400,000. A similar tunnel was built in 1870 under the main branch of the river at La Salle street, and connects the North and South Sides. Its length is 1890 feet, and it cost $549,000. The boulevards of Chicago surpass those of any other city on the continent; they are 250 feet wide, finely paved, shaded, and kept. They are reserved for carriage-driving, and form a connecting chain between the principal parks. There is a continuous drive of 40 miles of boulevard. The parks are many, large, and beautiful. The oldest and best is Lincoln, on the North Side, having a front of more than two miles on Lake Michigan. It contains 310 acres, and is noted for its flower-beds, zoological gardens, and groves of natural trees. Going west and south from the north end of this park, a boulevard 34 miles long leads to Humboldt Park, containing 194 acres. Thence south-west by boulevard 2 miles is Garfield Park, formerly called Central. It is directly west of the mouth of the Chicago River about 5 miles, and contains 185 acres. Adjacent to it is the Jockey Driving Park, a great resort in the sporting season. One and one-half miles south lie Douglas Park, containing 171 acres, and beautified with a lake covering over 12 acres. A boulevard connects Douglas Park with the south park system, the most western of which is 9 miles from Douglas. These south parks lie just outside the city limits, and contain in all 1055 acres, 14 miles of interior drives, and 30 miles of walks. The two main divisions of these parks are approached by two grand parkways, called the Drexel and Grand boulevards, the finest in the country. The former is modelled after the Avenue l'Impératrice of Paris. Coming north from the south parks is the East, or Jackson, Park, containing over 600 acres and 2 miles of lake frontage. A magnificent boulevard called the Midway Plaisance will eventually connect this with the south parks; this boulevard is 600 feet wide. Besides those named, there are many smaller parks distributed over the city, the largest of which are Lake, containing about 10 acres, and Union, about 6 acres. These small parks are the lungs of the city. On the parks within the confines of the city $12,330.28 were expended in 1882.

It is in

The finest and most elaborate building in Chicago is the new court-house and city-hall. It was begun soon after the fire of 1871, and is not yet completed, though occupied for various purposes. It is on the public square, has a frontage of 280 feet on Washington street and 340 feet on Clark and La Salle streets. the modern French Renaissance style of architecture, with a colonnade story of Corinthian columns surrounding the sub-building; the columns are of polished granite, 35 feet high, and support an elegantly-proportioned entablature, which is divided into architrave, frieze, and cornice. Over this entablature is an atticstory with allegorical groups, each nearly 12 feet high, representing Agriculture, Commerce, Mechanical Art, Plenty. etc. The building is 120 feet high, the façades on Washington and Randolph streets being about 280 feet high, and the tower, when completed, will rise to a height of 376. feet. The hall has cost about $4,000,000 | already. It is used for both city and county business. The next building is the new post-office and customhouse, built by the government, and finished in 1881 at an expense of $6,000,000, including cost of ground. It occupies a square, measures 344 by 240 feet, is three stories high, with a basement and attic, built of stone in the style known as Romanesque with Venetian treatment. The basement and ground-floors are used by the post-office department; the second floor is for customs, internal revenue, sub-treasury, commissioners of pensions, and mail agents; the third floor, for courts of the United States and for offices connected with the Department of the Interior.

The Exposition building was erected in ninety-six

the proposed site was conveyed by contract to the Rev. J. C. Burroughs in trust. On Jan. 30, 1857, a charter was granted by the State, naming a board of trustees, of which Judge Douglas was the president and a majority of the members were of the Baptist denomination, to which Mrs. Douglas belonged; but it was added that, "otherwise than that the majority of the trustees and the president of the university shall for ever be of the same religious denomination as the majority of this corporation, no religious test or particular religious profession shall ever be held as a requisite for admission to any department of the university or for election to any professorship or place of honor or emolument in it; but the same shall be open alike to persons of any religious faith or profession. Judge Douglas held the office of president of the board till his death, in June, 1861. Since that time the place has been filled by Hon. Wm. B. Ogden, LL.D., Hon. Thomas Hoyne, LL.D., and N. K. Fairbank.

The university was opened Sept. 29, 1858, with J. C. Burroughs, D. D., LL.D., as the president. He has been succeeded by Lemuel Moss, D. D., Hon. Alonzo Abernethy, and Galusha Anderson, S. T. D.

It has been the aim to make the standard as high as in any American college. Among its professors are Dr. James R. Boise, the author of numerous Greek textbooks; Dr. Wm. Matthews, widely known by his works in English literature; and Prof. Alonzo J. Howe, of the mathematical department. Ladies are admitted to the same advantages as gentlemen in all the classes of the university, The law department was opened Sept. 21, 1858, and the names of Hon. Thomas Hoyne, LL.D., and Hon. Henry Booth, LL.D., are inseparably connected with its history.

The Rush Medical College, at one time a department of the university, is now independent of it. The vicissitudes through which Chicago has passed have materially interfered with the financial prosperity of the university, but during the twenty-four years of its history it has graduated from its literary department about 300 students, and from the law department 800, among whom may be found not a few names which are honored in the political, religious, and business world.

In the year 1865, an astronomical society having been formed, the tower of the Dearborn Observatory was erected by the Hon. J. Y. Scammon. This has been furnished with one of the largest telescopes in the world and with all the necessary apparatus for astronomical work. The director of the observatory gives instruction in that department of the university. (G. A.) CHICKADEE (onomat.), a titmouse, a small oscine passerine bird of the genus Parus, sub-family, Parina, family Parida. Several distinct species of titmice receive the name 'chickadee in North America, the best known of these being the black-capped (Parus atricapillus). This has the crown and nape, with the chin and throat, glossy back, separated by white; the upper parts grayish-ash, the lower white, shaded on the sides with rusty-brown; the wings and tail full slate-color, edged with hoary-whitish, the bill black; the feet leaden-blue. It averages in length 53 inches; extent of wings, 83; wing and tail, each, 21; tarsus, It is an abundant and familiar inhabitant of the woodlands of the Eastern United States, especially in New England, the Middle States, and adjoining regions; it is hardy, and resident even in the most severe winters; of active habits and sprightly manners, with the very characteristic note of which the name chickadee" is an imitation. It is a prolific bird, laying six or eight eggs in a nest constructed with little art, but often with infinite labor, in a natural or artificial excavation on a tree-stump or fence-post, composed of grasses, mosses, hair, fur, feathers, etc., and the eggs are white, fully sprinkled with reddish-brown dots and spots. There are numerous other species of chickadees, both of North America and of the Old World. The former are-P. a. septentrionalis, a large variety with a longer tail, the

edged with hoary-white; this inhabits the North-western States and the Rocky Mountains. P. carolinensis is smaller, with shorter tail and less hoary edgings; of the Southern States. P. a. occidentalis is a variety of the first, from the Pacific coast. P. meridionalis is a darker colored species, from the Mexican border and southward. P. montanus, of the Rocky Mountains, is distinguished by a white streak over the eye. The foregoing are all very similar to the P. atricapillus. The chestnut-backed chickadee, P. rufescens, of the Pacific coast region, has the back and sides bright chestnut, the throat sooty, the cap dark wood-brown. In P. hudsonicus, so abundant in Northern New England, Canada, and northward, the crown, nape, and back are clear hair-brown, and there are other characters. P. cinctus, of Alaska and Siberia, is larger than the foregoing, and otherwise different. The habits of all the species are much the same, and shared to a great extent by other Parina. (E. C.) CHICKAHOMINY, a river in the eastern part of Virginia which rises on the border of Hanover county, about 20 miles north-west of Richmond. It flows south-east nearly parallel with the James, into which it empties about 40 miles south-east of Richmond. It is about 75 miles long, but is navigable only a short distance for small steamboats. During the civil war of 1861-65 the upper part of its course, which is bordered by numerous swamps, served as the innermost natural defence of Richmond, and near it were fought the following battles in McClellan's campaign of 1862: Fair Oaks, May 31; Mechanicsville, June 26; Gaines's Mills, June 27; Savage Station, June 29; Glendale, June 30; Malvern Hill, July 1. Again in Grant's campaign of 1864 the bloody battle of Cold Harbor was fought, June 3, on the same ground as Gaines's Mills. See COLD HARBOR, and other articles on these battles.

CHICKAMAUGA, a post-hamlet of Hamilton county, Tenn., on the Western and Atlantic Railroad, 12 miles east of Chattanooga. It is noted for the scene of one of the bloodiest and most complicated battles of the civil war, fought Sept. 19 and 20, 1863, between the Union army commanded by Gen. W. S. Rosecrans, and the Confederate army under Gen. Braxton Bragg. Chattanooga was for both armies the strategic point of the campaign; success would be with the one which should occupy and hold it.

Chattanooga is a great railroad centre, and stands in the narrow and important gateway from Tennessee into the fertile counties of Georgia. To the south and west the mountains are broken into subordinate ridges, separated by creeks and valleys, which form natural obstacles to an advance on the town from that direction. From west to east the principal among these are: 1. Sand Mountain, the northern extremity of which bears the name of Racoon Ridge; 2. Beyond Lookout Creek is Lookout Mountain, 2400 feet high, but having a practicable terraced base as it declines toward the river; 3. Beyond Rocky Creek is Missionary Ridge, through the northern gap of which a road runs to Rossville; 4. South-east of Missionary Ridge and across the West Chickamauga Creek lies Pigeon Mountain. The Chattanooga River, rising above Lafayette, runs northward into the Tennessee at the city. A common watershed for these streams is found in the McLemore's Cove, which forms a great gap through or between the ridges mentioned.

Gen. Rosecrans had remained for months apparently inactive after the battle of Stone River, or Murfreesborough, in which he had defeated Bragg, Jan. 2, 1863. When, at last, June 25, after repeated remonstrances from Gen. Halleck, he began his southern movement, the elements seemed to conspire against him; an incessant rain for seventeen days impeded his advance, and his movements were necessarily slow. His force, called "The Army of the Cumberland," numbered about 60,000 men, divided into three corps, under Gens.

Crittenden, Thomas, and McCook. Supporting the army of the Cumberland by a concurrent movement upon Knoxville was a column under Gen. Burnside, of about 20,000. To resist this Federal advance Gen. Bragg had about 50,000 men, posted chiefly at Shelbyville and War Trace, covering gaps and confronting the march of Rosecrans at an average distance of ten miles from Murfreesborough. Buckner was at Knoxville with about 10,000 men. The first scheme of Rosecrans was to turn the Confederate right. Bragg fell back rapidly, destroying the bridges and railroads. as he retreated toward Chattanooga. Thus impeded, Rosecrans moved very slowly. He crossed the Cumberland Mountains August 16, and then spent a month in repairing the communications and concentrating his forces. Again there was a sharp correspondence with Gen. Halleck, in which he was strongly urged to advance.

Meantime, the Confederate government, in the greatest concern lest Bragg should be overpowered, or dered Buckner to abandon Knoxville and East Tennessee and join Bragg without delay. Further reinforcements were sent him with Gen. Polk from Alabama and Longstreet from Virginia, and with this increase of numbers he was told he must fight. He posted Polk in and around Chattanooga, and Hardee on the Knoxville Railroad. Chattanooga, thus strengthened, being too powerful for a direct attack in front, Rosecrans moved his army down the river and crossed below on pontoons, rafts made of boats, and by the bridge at Bridgeport, which had been repaired. The Federal army was then set in motion on the left bank to turn the left flank of the enemy and strike his rear. Crittenden, on the Federal left, moving down the Sequatchie Valley, was ordered at the same time to advance directly upon Chattanooga. McCook, with the right wing, crossing at Caperton and Bridgeport, was instructed to advance through the mountain-passes to Valley Head, and thence by Summerville and Alpine to threaten the enemy's communications at Rome, In Georgia. Thomas, with the centre, was to pass the Racoon, cross the Lookout Mountain by several gaps, and, passing through McLemore's Cove, to march upon Lafayette. Crittenden crossed the river August 20, and on the 21st he shelled Chattanooga. By the 1st of September the entire Union army was across.

Bragg was not for a moment in doubt as to Rosecrans's purposes, nor did he fail to observe that in carrying them out the Union general had injudiciously extended his army. In the presence of a sagacious and wary foe he had separated his three corps by difficult mountains. Determining to take advantage of this, Bragg ordered Gen. D. H. Hill to march upon Lafayette, now the objective point, with the divisions of Buckner and Walker. He withdrew his stores from Chattanooga and abandoned the place because it was untenable, yet hoped to reoccupy it after a battle. He intended to give desperate battle upon the left centre of Rosecrans, hoping to crush him before he could concentrate his forces.

The Union general was in excellent spirits. Crittenden, on Sept. 8, had occupied Chattanooga with one brigade, and had marched the rest of his command to Ringgold, on the railroad between Chattanooga and Dalton, hoping to intercept Buckner, who, however, had already passed him on the way to Lafayette. Thomas was marching to Lafayette, and McCook was still moving in the direction of Rome. Thus, while the Union general thought his enemy was contemplating retreat, he was himself in imminent peril of having his unsupported left and centre crushed by overwhelming numbers.

Bragg had received all available reinforcements, the duty of guarding the railroads and bridges in rear being left to the Georgia militia. The skilful and sagacious plan of Bragg failed from the want of co-operation on the part of his generals; before it could be tried Rosecrans and his commanders had discovered the

VOL. II.--B

Confederate purpose and their own error. Thomas, who was still in McLemore's Cove, grasped the situation, and sent word that McCook must make a forced march to close up on his right. In carrying out the new orders, McCook, ignorant of the country lying between Thomas and himself, and that there was a road over the top of the mountain, was obliged to make a long circuitous route around the rear, which, had the enemy been intending to move in that direc tion, would have left the right flank of Thomas exposed. Fortunately, however, the closing up on the right was effected by the morning of September 18. It was not a moment too soon. Crittenden, encountering unexpected resistance at Ringgold, had fallen back across the Chickamauga. During the day and night of the 18th all the troops were placed in position. The entire Union army lay on the right bank of the Chickamauga, the right still on McLemore's Cove, and at first the left at Lee and Gordon's mills. During the night the whole force was moved northward by the flank, Thomas, in front, overlapping the left of McCook. Gen. Gordon Granger's command was in reserve in front of Rossville; Crittenden was posted in rear of the centre; the headquarters of Gen. Rosecrans were in rear of the right centre; other reserves were in scattered positions toward Chattanooga. It was now manifest that it was Bragg's purpose, while trying to overwhelm the Union centre, to turn its left and cut Rosecrans off from Chattanooga. The Confederate army lay that night on the left bank of the Chickamauga, Gen. Polk, with Walker's and Cheatham's division on the right, confronting the position of Thomas, and Gen. Hood on the left. With great rapidity Bragg moved 30,000 men across the creek and pushed division after division upon Thomas. The first attack drove in Thomas's advance, but, others coming to the rescue, it was driven back in turn. The attack was renewed with redoubled vigor along Thomas's entire front. The danger seemed imminent, when Gen. Hazen, of Crittenden's corps, rapidly posted twenty guns, and, delivering an enfilading fire, drove back the Confederates in confusion. One more organized attack, but not so vigorous as the preceding, was made upon the Union centre, and was repulsed, when night put an end to the conflict.

New dispositions were made in both armies under cover of the darkness; and when the morning of the 19th dawned, both were ready for battle. In the Union lines McCook, well closed up, still occupied the right, his flank being drawn back en potence to resist a movement in that direction; Thomas, well drawn together on the left, had been reinforced by the divisions of Johnson and Palmer of McCook's corps; the divisions of Brannan and Negley were held in reserve. Crittenden was placed in reserve in rear of centre, and Gen. Granger to the left and rear of the whole line, in the direction of Rossville. The cavalry occupied the extreme right. Bragg's army confronted the Union troops from left to right with Polk's corps, Hill, and Longstreet. These were arranged in two lines, with adequate reserves, and with the cavalry on the left. The Union army was on the defensive. Fortunately, Thomas had taken the precaution to throw up slight entrenchments in his front, which proved to be of great service.

Bragg had given orders to attack at sunrise, and was in the saddle with the earliest dawn listening for the sound of Polk's guns. He did not hear them; and when he sent in hot haste to find the reason, he was told that Polk had not passed the night with his command, and that in posting the troops Longstreet's right overlapped him and he could not move until his front was uncovered. This was not accomplished until ten o'clock. Then the whole Confederate right was launched, division after division, upon the devoted Thomas. To meet this, troops were hurried up from the right to reinforce him, and the tide seemed to have turned in his favor, when an unfortunate mistake changed the